Chapter 5: Part 3 - Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُمْ – The Caliph and the Wounded Ummah!
Ali رضي الله عنه's position, as reflected in the historical tradition, was that justice must ultimately be established—but that the state first needed enough stability and authority to carry it out properly. Others feared the opposite. They believed that every delay endangered justice.
THE BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM!
Danish Shafiq
6/12/202615 min read
Chapter 5: Part 3 - Ali رضي الله عنه - The Caliph and the Wounded Ummah!
The First Days of a Broken Caliphate!
Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه had accepted the Caliphate. But the moment the Bayʿah was placed in his hand, the reality before him became unmistakable. He had inherited a state without peace. The previous Caliph had been murdered.
The rebels who had surrounded Uthman رضي الله عنه had not simply disappeared after his death. Men from different provinces remained in Madinah, political loyalties were uncertain, and the authority of the central government had been badly weakened.
Ali رضي الله عنه therefore did not begin his Caliphate with the freedom normally enjoyed by a newly appointed ruler. He began it surrounded by questions. What would happen to the governors? How could authority be restored? How could the provinces be brought back under one command?
And above all: How would the killers of Uthman رضي الله عنه be brought to justice?
The last question would follow Ali رضي الله عنه throughout the earliest months of his Caliphate. It would become the central wound from which the first great civil conflict of the Muslim community would emerge. Yet before that conflict reached the battlefield, Ali رضي الله عنه had to govern.
Restoring the Government!
One of the earliest challenges was the provincial administration. Uthman رضي الله عنه had appointed governors across the expanding Islamic state. After his assassination, the legitimacy and loyalty of several of these officials became uncertain.
Ali رضي الله عنه began making changes. Some experienced Companions advised him to move cautiously. Among those reported to have counselled restraint was al-Mughira ibn Shuʿba رضي الله عنه, who urged Ali رضي الله عنه not to rush into replacing the existing governors, particularly Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه in Syria.
ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas رضي الله عنهما is also reported to have advised Ali رضي الله عنه to proceed carefully, recognizing the danger of changing the provincial leadership while the political situation remained unstable.
But Ali رضي الله عنه faced pressure from his supporters to establish a new administration. He appointed new officials in several provinces. Among the appointments associated with his early Caliphate were Qays ibn Saʿd رضي الله عنه in Egypt and Uthman ibn Hunayf رضي الله عنه in Basrah.
But Syria presented a completely different problem. There stood Muʿawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan رضي الله عنه. He had governed Syria for years. He possessed an established administration. He had the loyalty of a powerful provincial society. And he was a relative of Uthman رضي الله عنه.
Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه did not give allegiance to Ali رضي الله عنه. For him, the murder of Uthman رضي الله عنه could not simply be treated as an unfortunate event belonging to the past. The blood of the murdered Caliph had to be answered for.
Thus, even before armies began marching, the political landscape of the Muslim world was already changing.
Ali رضي الله عنه held the Caliphate.
Syria stood apart. Egypt required careful administration. Iraq was politically unsettled. And Madinah itself remained haunted by the events that had brought the new Caliph to power. The storm had not yet become a war. But the foundations of conflict were already being laid.
Justice for Uthman رضي الله عنه!
The greatest question remained unanswered.
What would happen to the men responsible for Uthman's رضي الله عنه murder?
Ali رضي الله عنه did not consider the killing acceptable. Nor did he regard the matter as closed. But identifying and punishing the guilty in the immediate aftermath was not as simple as announcing a sentence. The rebellion had involved people from different places. The siege had unfolded over days. Many individuals had entered and left the scene. The political order had collapsed. And armed men who had participated in the upheaval were still present.
If Ali رضي الله عنه attempted a sweeping purge without first possessing the necessary authority, the result could be another wave of violence. The question therefore became one of timing and method.
Ali رضي الله عنه's position, as reflected in the historical tradition, was that justice must ultimately be established—but that the state first needed enough stability and authority to carry it out properly. Others feared the opposite. They believed that every delay endangered justice. If the murder of a Caliph could pass without immediate punishment, what would prevent future rebellion?
This difference would soon become impossible to contain.
And among those most deeply concerned were some of the most honoured people in the Ummah.
The Concern of Talhah and az-Zubayr رضي الله عنهما
Talhah ibn Ubaydullah رضي الله عنه and az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam رضي الله عنه were not strangers to Ali رضي الله عنه. They were among the earliest Muslims. They had suffered alongside the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم. They had fought beside him. They belonged to the generation that had built the Muslim community with sacrifice rather than inheritance.
And both had initially given allegiance to Ali رضي الله عنه. Yet the political crisis soon placed them in a difficult position. They believed that the killing of Uthman رضي الله عنه demanded urgent attention. Their concern was not simply about political power. It was about a crime committed against the Commander of the Believers and the danger that such a crime might become normalized.
The historical reports, however, differ regarding the precise circumstances of their departure from Ali رضي الله عنه and the motives behind it. However, they had pledged allegiance to Ali رضي الله عنه, but they soon came to believe that the question of Uthman's رضي الله عنه killers required a more urgent response than Ali's (رضي الله عنه) policy was providing.
The disagreement was becoming political. But it was still not necessarily a call for war. And then events brought another towering figure into the story. Aisha رضي الله عنها — The Mother of the Believers.
Aisha رضي الله عنها had not been in Madinah throughout the final stages of Uthman's رضي الله عنه crisis. She had travelled to Makkah for the pilgrimage and was there when news of Uthman's (رضي الله عنه) murder reached her. The news was devastating. Uthman رضي الله عنه had been a Companion of the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم.
He had married two daughters of the Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم. He had spent his wealth for Islam. He had served as Caliph for almost twelve years. And now he had been killed in Madinah.
Aisha رضي الله عنها, like others among the Companions, was deeply concerned about the consequences. When she learned that Ali رضي الله عنه had become Caliph, she returned toward Makkah rather than simply proceeding into the political centre of the new government.
There was a growing conviction among a group of prominent Companions that the murder of Uthman رضي الله عنه required action, and Aisha رضي الله عنها was among them. We should not portray her as someone who suddenly became an enemy of Ali رضي الله عنه.
Aisha رضي الله عنها herself is reported in the historical tradition as describing her purpose in terms of reconciliation and reform between the people. Whatever one concludes about the later political decisions, the reader should understand that this was not a movement that began with an openly declared desire to destroy Ali رضي الله عنه or to establish a new regime.
It emerged from the unresolved crisis surrounding Uthman's (رضي الله عنه) death. And that distinction matters enormously.
The Road Toward Basrah!
Talhah رضي الله عنه, az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه and Aisha رضي الله عنها eventually became associated with the movement that travelled toward Basrah.
Why Basrah?
Because Iraq was one of the most important centres of the Muslim state. It contained large numbers of Arab tribes and veterans of the conquests. It possessed wealth, military strength and strategic importance. If the question of Uthman's رضي الله عنه murder was to be pursued politically, Iraq was a far more significant arena than the small and exhausted city of Madinah.
But there was another important fact:
Ali رضي الله عنه was not initially in Basrah. His governor there was Uthman ibn Hunayf رضي الله عنه, an Ansari Companion appointed by Ali رضي الله عنه.
When the group accompanying Aisha رضي الله عنها, Talhah رضي الله عنه, and az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه reached the region, the people of Basrah did not respond as one united body. Some supported them. Others remained loyal to Ali رضي الله عنه. Others wanted no part in the political conflict at all.
The city itself became divided. And here the tragedy began to move from political disagreement toward physical confrontation.
The First Blood at Basrah!
The forces associated with Aisha رضي الله عنها, Talhah رضي الله عنه, and az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه entered Basrah and confronted the authority of Ali's governor, Uthman ibn Hunayf رضي الله عنه. Negotiations followed. There was fighting. Then, according to the historical accounts, an agreement was reached to avoid a larger confrontation until Ali رضي الله عنه himself arrived.
This detail is extremely important. Because it demonstrates that even after the opposing forces had gathered, the great battle of Jamal was not inevitable from the first moment.
There were still attempts to contain the crisis. There were still negotiations. There were still people hoping that the matter could be resolved without a general battle. But the situation remained unstable. Violence erupted again. The struggle for control of Basrah intensified. People were killed. The governor was eventually overpowered and removed from effective control of the city.
The political crisis had now acquired a dangerous new dimension: both sides possessed armed supporters. And once armed groups begin confronting one another, even a disagreement that began with political questions can rapidly become something much harder to control.
Where Was Ali رضي الله عنه?
Ali رضي الله عنه was not sitting passively in Madinah while events unfolded. When he learned that the group had moved toward Basrah, he began preparing to respond. But his objective was not simply to march into battle. He needed men. He needed supplies. He needed a force large enough to restore his authority. And he needed to understand what was happening on the ground.
Ali رضي الله عنه therefore moved toward Iraq. Along the way, he sought support from different communities and tribes. The greatest response eventually came from Kufah. Kufah had become one of the major military and political centres of Iraq.
Yet even there, the response was not automatic. The city contained different factions and competing political opinions. The governor of Kufah at the time was Abu Musa al-Ashʿari رضي الله عنه, himself a senior and respected Companion. Rather than mobilising the city on Ali's (رضي الله عنه) behalf, Abu Musa al-Ashʿari رضي الله عنه actively counselled the people of Kufah to stay out of the conflict altogether, describing it to them as a dispute among Quraysh in which the wider community should not take up arms.
This was not disloyalty on his part — he is remembered as a man deeply averse to bloodshed between Muslims, and he framed his position in exactly those terms. But his call for neutrality worked against Ali's (رضي الله عنه) need for troops, and it left the city hesitant at a critical moment.
Ali رضي الله عنه therefore sent prominent figures to appeal to the people. Among those associated with the effort were his son Hasan ibn Ali رضي الله عنه and Ammar ibn Yasir رضي الله عنه.
Their presence carried enormous weight. Eventually, substantial numbers of people from Kufah joined Ali رضي الله عنه. His force grew. And the Caliph of the Muslims now moved toward Basrah. Not yet toward a battle. Toward a confrontation that both sides still hoped might be resolved peacefully.
The Two Armies Face One Another!
When Ali رضي الله عنه and his forces reached the region of Basrah, the situation became extraordinarily tense.
On one side stood the Caliph of the Muslims. With him were Companions and supporters who believed that his Bayʿah had established legitimate authority and that the unity of the Muslim state had to be preserved.
Among those around him were men such as Hasan ibn Ali رضي الله عنه, Husayn ibn Ali رضي الله عنه, Ammar ibn Yasir رضي الله عنه, Qays ibn Saʿd رضي الله عنه, and others.
On the other side stood Aisha رضي الله عنها, Talhah رضي الله عنه, and az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه, accompanied by supporters from Makkah and Basrah who believed that the crisis surrounding Uthman رضي الله عنه demanded urgent action.
Yet this was not simply a contest between two armies seeking power. The men facing one another had prayed toward the same Kaʿbah. They followed the same Messenger صلى الله عليه وسلم. They believed in the same Qur'an. And many had once fought shoulder to shoulder.
That is why the atmosphere was so painful.
Ali رضي الله عنه was Seeking a Way Out!
Ali رضي الله عنه did not want the situation to end in bloodshed. Negotiations began. The historical reports preserve accounts of meetings between the leading figures. Ali رضي الله عنه spoke with Talhah رضي الله عنه. He spoke with az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه. There were discussions concerning the killing of Uthman رضي الله عنه, the legitimacy of Ali's Caliphate, and the future of the Muslim community.
And one of the most striking traditions concerns az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه. Ali رضي الله عنه reminded him of a statement attributed to the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم concerning a future confrontation between the two. The reminder affected az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه deeply. Having recalled the Prophet's ﷺ words, az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه made his decision before a single sword was drawn.
He turned away from the ranks and left the battlefield entirely, choosing not to take part in a fight against Ali رضي الله عنه. This withdrawal took place before the fighting began — it was not a retreat made under pressure once the battle was underway.
His departure, however, did not bring him safety.
This moment is important because it demonstrates again that the leaders of the two camps were not simply thirsting for battle. There remained a genuine desire among some of them to avoid it.
Likewise, traditions report discussions in which the central issue remained the same:
How could the blood of Uthman رضي الله عنه be answered for without destroying the Ummah itself?
Ali رضي الله عنه maintained that he too wanted justice. The disagreement was over the circumstances in which justice could actually be carried out. The possibility of reconciliation therefore remained alive.
For a moment... it seemed that the storm might pass without becoming a war.
Then the Night Changed Everything!
And here we must tread carefully. This is one of the most disputed parts of the entire story. Later historical narratives describe violence breaking out during the night before the battle, after negotiations had created hope for reconciliation.
Some traditions explain the outbreak as the work of groups who feared that peace would expose them to punishment for their role in Uthman's murder. This later became the basis for the famous account that hidden troublemakers deliberately attacked both camps, causing each side to believe that the other had betrayed the agreement.
The story is powerful. It explains how a reconciliation could apparently collapse so suddenly.
But for a historian, there is an important caution:
The early sources do not preserve one single, universally agreed account of exactly how the fighting began.
Different reports give different details. Some emphasize deliberate provocation. Others describe escalating mistrust, local violence, and the actions of particular groups. Because of this, we should not confidently name one individual or one secret faction as the unquestionable person responsible for starting Jamal.
What we can say with confidence is that the atmosphere of suspicion was already extraordinarily dangerous, and once violence erupted, events moved faster than the leaders could control.
The night that had begun with hope ended in uncertainty. Men woke to weapons. Each side feared that the other had launched an attack. And in the confusion... the possibility of peace began to disappear.
The Battle of the Camel!
The fighting that followed became one of the most tragic confrontations in Islamic history. Aisha رضي الله عنها was present with the opposing camp, seated in her howdah upon a camel. Her presence became a rallying point for her supporters. The fighting intensified around her position.
That is why later generations would remember the conflict as the Battle of the Camel — Jamal.
Ali رضي الله عنه did not wish for Aisha رضي الله عنها to be harmed. The battle was not simply about defeating an enemy commander. She was one of the beloved wives of the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم. The Mother of the Believers. And she was surrounded by people who believed they were acting for a cause they considered just.
Talhah رضي الله عنه, unlike az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه, remained with the forces opposing Ali رضي الله عنه as the fighting broke out, and he was struck by an arrow during the battle. The reports concerning who fired that arrow are not uniform, but several narrations found in Sunni historical works — including the Tabaqat of Ibn Saʿd — attribute the shot to Marwan ibn al-Hakam, who was present in the same camp as Talhah رضي الله عنه that day. Talhah رضي الله عنه later died of the wound.
Historical reports record that Muhammad ibn Talhah رضي الله عنه, known as al-Sajjad, fought at Jamal and was killed in connection with the battle. Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr رضي الله عنهما also fought on the side of Aisha رضي الله عنها and was wounded during the battle.
The tragedy had reached its darkest point.
By the later stages of the battle, the fighting had become concentrated around one place: the camel carrying Aisha رضي الله عنها. The battle continued with terrible intensity around the camel, because men from her side gathered around it and continued defending the Mother of the Believers.
One by one, those holding the camel's reins were killed. The battlefield had become a scene of extraordinary bloodshed. Men who had once prayed together were now falling beneath one another's swords.
Ali رضي الله عنه understood that as long as the camel remained standing, the fighting would continue. He therefore ordered that the camel be brought down. The order was carried out. The camel was hamstrung, and it collapsed beneath the howdah in which Aisha رضي الله عنها was seated.
The fall of the camel brought the fighting around her to an end and broke the final rallying point of the opposing army. Early historical reports describe the howdah being brought down and Aisha رضي الله عنها being taken to safety.
It is important to describe this moment carefully.
Aisha رضي الله عنها was not the target of Ali's رضي الله عنه order. The purpose was to stop the fighting that had gathered around her and to bring the battle to an end. The historical reports indicate that she survived the encounter and was treated with the dignity due to the Mother of the Believers.
Ali رضي الله عنه then sent Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the brother of Aisha رضي الله عنها, toward her.
The scene that followed is among the most poignant moments of the aftermath.
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr approached the howdah to make certain that his sister was safe. In the account preserved by al-Tabari, Ali رضي الله عنه had instructed him to check whether anything had struck her. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr approached, and Aisha رضي الله عنها initially asked who was there. When she recognized her brother, the tension of the battlefield gave way to the relief of a family member discovering that his sister had survived.
Other early reports describe Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr رضي الله عنه and Abdullah ibn Budayl helping to remove the howdah and bring Aisha رضي الله عنها to a place of safety.
And then Ali رضي الله عنه made his position unmistakable. The defeated were not to be treated as prisoners of war.
There was to be no general slaughter of those who fled, no pursuit of the wounded, and no seizure of their property as war booty. Reports describing Ali's instructions after the battle emphasize that those who laid down their weapons or remained inside their homes were to be left in safety.
The battle was over. But victory could bring no celebration. Too many Muslims had died. Too many familiar faces had disappeared from the battlefield. And among the dead were men who had once stood beside the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم.
Ali رضي الله عنه had won the battle. But this was not the kind of victory that brought joy to a believer's heart. It was the victory of a Caliph who had been forced to fight people who were not foreign enemies, but members of his own Ummah.
Az-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam رضي الله عنه, having already withdrawn from the field before the fighting began, was pursued afterward and killed away from the battlefield.
According to the reports, he was overtaken at a place called Wadi al-Sibaʿ by a man named ʿAmr ibn Jurmuz, who killed him there — in some narrations, while az-Zubayr رضي الله عنه had stopped to pray.
When his killer brought the news to Ali رضي الله عنه, expecting recognition, Ali رضي الله عنه instead grieved deeply and is reported to have condemned the killing outright, recalling az-Zubayr's رضي الله عنه long service and sacrifice at the side of the Prophet ﷺ.
Ali's رضي الله عنه reaction to both deaths is itself telling: he did not treat either man as a defeated enemy to be dishonoured, but as a brother in faith whose loss was a tragedy regardless of which side of the battlefield he had stood on.
Ali's (رضي الله عنه) victory had not healed the Ummah. It had revealed how deeply the Ummah had been wounded.
The Return of Aisha رضي الله عنها
After the battle, Ali رضي الله عنه treated Aisha رضي الله عنها with respect and arranged for her safe return. Aisha رضي الله عنها was neither imprisoned, humiliated, nor treated as a captive enemy. Ali رضي الله عنه ordered that she be escorted safely away from the battlefield, and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr رضي الله عنه was involved in her protection and return.
Thus, the Battle of Jamal ended not with the humiliation of the Mother of the Believers, but with her being taken away from the battlefield and returned toward Madinah. The woman who had entered Basra amid the demand for justice for Uthman رضي الله عنه now departed after witnessing one of the bloodiest internal conflicts in the early history of Islam.
And perhaps the most painful lesson of Jamal was this:
The people on both sides had believed that they were seeking what was right. Yet the road from disagreement to bloodshed had proved far easier to travel than anyone had imagined.
The tragedy of Jamal therefore cannot be reduced to a story of simple heroes and villains.
It was a tragedy of the First Fitnah—a period in which sincere intentions, political judgments, grief over Uthman's رضي الله عنه murder, competing understandings of justice, provincial tensions, and the actions of armed groups became entangled until the swords of Muslims were finally drawn against Muslims.
And when the swords were finally sheathed... the Ummah was no longer the same.
Where Were Muʿawiyah and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ?
It is important not to confuse the different fronts of the First Fitnah. While the crisis involving Aisha رضي الله عنها, Talhah رضي الله عنه, and az-Zubayr رضي الله عنهم was developing around Basrah, Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه remained in Syria. He was not the commander of the forces at Jamal. Nor was Jamal a battle fought by Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه against Ali رضي الله عنه. His confrontation with Ali رضي الله عنه belonged to the next major stage of the Fitnah.
The same is true of ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ رضي الله عنه. He was not a commander at Jamal. He had remained politically cautious during the earliest phase after Uthman's رضي الله عنه death and later became closely associated with Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه. His major role would emerge in the subsequent Syrian confrontation.
Thus the Muslim world was not divided into two simple camps from the beginning. There were several political centres. Several grievances. Several judgments. And several personalities whose positions evolved as the crisis unfolded.
That complexity is essential to understanding what happened next.
After Jamal — Victory Without Celebration!
Ali رضي الله عنه had defeated the forces gathered against him. But he had not defeated the Fitnah.
The battle had demonstrated that military victory could restore control over a city, but it could not restore the unity that had existed before Uthman's رضي الله عنه assassination.
Ali رضي الله عنه now faced an even greater challenge.
Syria.
Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه still refused to give allegiance. And the demand for justice for Uthman رضي الله عنه remained at the centre of the political dispute. The Caliphate was therefore entering its next and perhaps even more consequential stage.
The first battle had been fought among Companions whose lives had once been intertwined with the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم. The next confrontation would bring Ali رضي الله عنه and Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه—leaders of two increasingly separate political centres—toward the banks of the Euphrates, where another and even greater tragedy awaited: Siffin.
But before we enter that chapter... we should pause and understand what Jamal teaches us.
The lesson is not that one Companion was a monster and another was a saint. The lesson is not that Islam suddenly disappeared from the hearts of those who disagreed. The lesson is that the greatest generation after the Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم was confronted with a political crisis of unprecedented scale.
They made judgments. They differed. They acted according to what they believed was right. And the consequences were devastating. For those who loved all of the Companions رضي الله عنهم, this chapter of history is not a reason to insult one side.
It is a reason to grieve. To learn. To be cautious with political passions. And to remember how quickly a community can move from disagreement... to division... and from division... to bloodshed.
The wound of Uthman رضي الله عنه had opened the door. Jamal showed the world how deep that wound had become.
And now, from Syria, another storm was approaching.
Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه was waiting. Siffin was coming.
End of Chapter 5: Part 3
Chapter 5: Part 4 - Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُمْ – and The Siffin — When the Ummah Stood on Opposite Banks!