Chapter 5: Part 5 - Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُمْ - After Siffin — When the Sword Fell Silent, But the Fitnah Did Not!
Human beings had always been required to apply the Qur'an to human affairs. Judges interpreted disputes. Leaders made decisions. Agreements were negotiated. The issue was not whether Allah was the ultimate Judge. The issue was whether Muslims could appoint representatives to seek a settlement according to the Book of Allah.
THE BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM!
Danish Shafiq
6/12/20269 min read
Chapter 5: Part 4 - Ali رضي الله عنه - After Siffin — When the Sword Fell Silent, But the Fitnah Did Not!
The battlefield of Siffin had fallen silent.
The dust that had risen beneath the feet of thousands of soldiers was beginning to settle. The cries of wounded men were replacing the roar of battle. Across the vast plain, the armies of Iraq and Syria stood exhausted after months of confrontation.
Muslims had fought Muslims. Men who had once prayed toward the same Kaʿbah had raised their swords against one another. And yet, after all the blood that had been spilled, there was still no decisive answer.
Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه remained the Caliph of the Muslim community. Muʿawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan رضي الله عنه remained the powerful leader of Syria. The question that had brought the armies to Siffin had not disappeared.
And the wound that had opened with the murder of Uthman رضي الله عنه was still bleeding.
But something new had now entered the story.
Arbitration.
The two sides agreed that representatives should seek a settlement according to the Qur'an and the Prophetic guidance, in an attempt to prevent the conflict from consuming the Muslim community entirely. The surviving historical evidence confirms the existence of an arbitration agreement, although the later narratives differ considerably over its precise details and the events surrounding the subsequent meetings.
For Ali رضي الله عنه, this decision would prove extraordinarily costly. Because although arbitration had stopped one battle... it would soon create another division. Not between Iraq and Syria. But within Ali's own army.
When the Army Began to Divide!
There were men in Ali's رضي الله عنه army who had accepted arbitration because they believed that continuing the battle would lead only to more Muslim bloodshed. Others had reluctantly accepted it. And others believed that accepting human arbitration after fighting had begun was itself a grave mistake.
Among the latter were men who had fought fiercely beside Ali رضي الله عنه at Siffin. They had heard the Qur'an being raised upon spears. They had seen the battle interrupted. And they had begun to ask a question that would soon change the course of Islamic history:
How can human beings decide a matter that belongs to Allah?
Their slogan became:
“Lā ḥukma illā lillāh.”
“Judgment belongs to Allah alone.”
At first, this was not necessarily the slogan of an entirely separate religious movement. These men had originally stood within Ali's (رضي الله عنه) camp. They had fought under his banner. But after the arbitration agreement, a group among them withdrew from Ali رضي الله عنه.
They first gathered at a place known as Ḥarūrāʾ, outside Kufa, and their separation gradually developed into what later became known as the Khawārij—those who “departed” or “went out.”
And here the tragedy became even more painful. Ali رضي الله عنه was no longer facing only Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه. He was now being challenged by men who had once fought beside him.
Ali رضي الله عنه and the Men Who Had Left Him!
Ali رضي الله عنه did not immediately treat every dissenter as an enemy. He understood that the community had already suffered enough bloodshed. He therefore attempted to reason with them. Their argument was simple in its appearance:
“There is no judgment except Allah's.”
Ali رضي الله عنه did not reject the principle that ultimate judgment belongs to Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى. But he challenged their interpretation of what that principle meant in the political circumstances before them. Human beings had always been required to apply the Qur'an to human affairs.
Judges interpreted disputes. Leaders made decisions. Agreements were negotiated. The issue was not whether Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى was the ultimate Judge. The issue was whether Muslims could appoint representatives to seek a settlement according to the Book of Allah سُبْحَانَهُ وَتَعَالَى.
The disagreement, however, was becoming deeper than a political argument. It was becoming a question of religious legitimacy. The men who had separated from Ali رضي الله عنه increasingly regarded the arbitration itself as an unacceptable compromise.
And gradually...
the distance between them and the Caliph became wider.
The Arbitration
The two representatives eventually became Abu Musa al-Ashʿari رضي الله عنه on the Iraqi side and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ رضي الله عنه on the Syrian side. Their personalities and political instincts were very different, and later historians transmitted numerous accounts of their meetings.
Some of the most famous stories describe elaborate exchanges between the two men and portray the arbitration as a dramatic contest of political intelligence. But this is precisely where caution is necessary.
The broad historical fact of arbitration is well established. The surviving sources, however, do not preserve a single uncontested account of every conversation, speech, and exchange that supposedly occurred between Abu Musa رضي الله عنه and ʿAmr ibn al-ʿĀṣ رضي الله عنه. Modern academic studies have specifically drawn attention to the contradictory nature of these later narratives.
Therefore, it is better to remember the larger historical reality than to build the chapter around dramatic details that cannot be established with equal certainty. The arbitration did not heal the Muslim community. It did not restore the unity that had existed before the murder of Uthman رضي الله عنه. And it did not bring a universally accepted political settlement.
Instead, Ali's رضي الله عنه coalition began to weaken. The disagreement over arbitration had created a new political reality.
The Men Who Wanted to Continue the Struggle!
Ali رضي الله عنه now faced an impossible political landscape. If he continued the war against Syria, he risked more Muslim bloodshed. If he accepted arbitration, some of his own supporters would accuse him of abandoning the principle of decisive action. If he attempted to reconcile with the dissenters, he risked appearing weak.
And if he fought them, he would once again be sending Muslims against Muslims. This was the terrible burden of his Caliphate. The enemies of Islam were no longer the only danger. The danger now lay within the political structure of the Ummah itself. The men who had once marched beside Ali رضي الله عنه were beginning to divide into different camps. Some remained firmly loyal to him. Some became politically exhausted. Some withdrew from the conflict. And some became openly hostile.
The Caliph was increasingly discovering that commanding an army was easier than preserving its unity.
The Khawārij Become a Separate Force!
The Khawārij eventually moved away from Kufa and established themselves in the region of Nahrawān. Their position became increasingly uncompromising. They condemned arbitration. They condemned those who accepted it. And their political-religious outlook gradually developed into a movement that would challenge not only Ali رضي الله عنه and Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه, but eventually other Muslim rulers as well.
It is important, however, not to project the later history of the Khawārij backward in a simplistic manner. The movement developed over time. The men who first separated from Ali رضي الله عنه were not necessarily identical in doctrine or conduct to every later Kharijite group. The term would eventually encompass multiple branches and very different levels of militancy.
But its earliest political roots lay in the crisis created by Siffin and the arbitration.
And Ali رضي الله عنه now faced a new question:
Could this disagreement still be resolved without bloodshed?
The Road to Nahrawān!
Ali رضي الله عنه did not immediately march against them simply because they disagreed with him. There remained an important distinction between political dissent and armed rebellion. But the situation deteriorated. Reports describe increasing tensions, confrontations, and acts of violence associated with the Kharijite movement.
At this point, the issue was no longer merely:
“Do you agree with the arbitration?”
It had become:
“Will you accept the authority of the Muslim community's Caliph, or will you establish your own armed order?”
Ali رضي الله عنه had already fought at Badr, Uhud, Khandaq, Khaybar and Siffin. Yet this confrontation was unlike those earlier battles. At Badr, he had fought an external enemy. At Khaybar, he had carried the banner against fortified opponents. At Siffin, he had fought another Muslim political army.
But at Nahrawān, he was preparing to confront men who had once marched beneath his own banner.
The tragedy had reached another level.
Nahrawān — When the Caliph Faced His Own Former Supporters!
In 38 AH / 658 CE, the confrontation at Nahrawān took place. Ali رضي الله عنه's forces faced the Kharijite group that had refused reconciliation and had become an armed opposition. Before the fighting, Ali رضي الله عنه continued to seek a peaceful resolution.
The historical tradition preserves accounts of efforts to persuade individuals among them to leave the movement rather than fight. Some did. Others remained. The confrontation eventually became unavoidable. And when the battle began, the Kharijite force was decisively defeated by Ali's رضي الله عنه army.
But once again... there was no real joy in victory. Because the men lying dead on the field were Muslims. They had once stood within the same community. They had recited the same Qur'an. They had faced the same direction in prayer. And now they had died beneath Muslim swords.
Ali رضي الله عنه had won another battle. But every victory seemed to leave the Ummah more wounded than before.
The Survivors of Nahrawān!
Not every Kharijite was killed at Nahrawān. Some survived. And the ideas that had moved did not disappear with the battlefield defeat. This would prove crucial. A military victory could destroy an army. It could not necessarily destroy an ideology. The surviving Kharijites continued to regard Ali رضي الله عنه as having committed a grave political and religious error.
Their opposition would persist. And from among the wider Kharijite movement would eventually emerge the man who would change the final chapter of Ali's (رضي الله عنه) life.
His name was ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muljam. But that tragedy was still in the future.
For the moment, Ali رضي الله عنه remained Caliph. And the Muslim state was becoming increasingly fragile.
While Iraq Was Bleeding, Syria Was Growing Stronger!
The consequences of the internal divisions were not limited to Iraq. Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه remained firmly established in Syria. His administration had survived the turmoil. His military base remained strong. And while Ali رضي الله عنه was forced to deal with divisions within his own coalition, Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه was able to expand his political influence.
This does not mean that the First Fitnah suddenly became a simple contest between a “good side” and a “bad side.” It was more complicated than that.
Ali رضي الله عنه remained the Caliph recognized by those who followed him.
Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه remained the powerful leader of Syria who continued to refuse allegiance while demanding justice for Uthman رضي الله عنه.
The Kharijites had now emerged as a third force.
And many ordinary Muslims wanted nothing more than to escape the entire conflict.
The Ummah was no longer divided into two simple camps. It was becoming fragmented by competing political judgments, fears, loyalties, and interpretations of justice.
Ali رضي الله عنه's Greatest Problem Was No Longer the Enemy!
Ali رضي الله عنه had spent his youth defending Islam. He had stood beside the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم when the Muslim community was weak. He had carried the banner at Khaybar. He had defended the Prophet صلى الله عليه وسلم at Uhud. He had fought at Siffin. He had defeated the Kharijites at Nahrawān.
Yet the greatest challenge remained.
How could he restore unity to a community that had learned to distrust itself?
Every decision created another consequence. Every military victory created another wound. Every political compromise created another group accusing him of weakness. Every attempt at firmness risked producing more bloodshed.
And perhaps this was the deepest tragedy of Ali's رضي الله عنه Caliphate: He had inherited a political crisis that could not be solved by the sword alone. The sword could defeat an army. It could not restore trust. It could not return Uthman رضي الله عنه to life. It could not erase Jamal. It could not undo Siffin. It could not make former brothers forget the blood that had been spilled.
The Caliphate Begins to Weaken!
After Nahrawān, Ali رضي الله عنه intended to turn his attention once again toward Syria. But the condition of his Iraqi supporters had changed. Years of war had exhausted them. The people who had once marched with enthusiasm were increasingly reluctant to return to the battlefield. Some had lost relatives. Some had become disillusioned.
Others feared that another campaign would produce another Siffin. Ali رضي الله عنه repeatedly called upon his people to prepare. But the response was no longer what it had been. The Caliph still possessed authority. But authority and obedience were no longer the same thing. And this distinction would become increasingly important.
Meanwhile, Muʿawiyah رضي الله عنه's position continued to strengthen. His Syrian base remained intact. His political influence expanded. And the balance of power that had once appeared uncertain was slowly changing. The First Fitnah had begun with the murder of one Caliph. It was now threatening to reshape the entire political order of the Muslim world.
The Final Years Were Approaching!
Ali رضي الله عنه had entered the Caliphate unwillingly. He had accepted it because the Ummah needed leadership. He had inherited the consequences of Uthman's رضي الله عنه murder. He had fought at Jamal. He had fought at Siffin. He had accepted arbitration in the hope of preventing further bloodshed. He had then fought the Kharijites at Nahrawān when they became an armed threat.
And still... the Ummah remained divided.
Yet Ali رضي الله عنه continued to lead. Not because the road had become easier. But because the responsibility had not disappeared. The man who had once stood beside the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وسلم as a young believer was now an ageing Caliph carrying the weight of an entire generation's conflict.
His enemies were no longer simply armies beyond the frontier. They were political divisions. Tribal loyalties. Competing interpretations of justice. Exhaustion. Distrust. And the memory of blood.
The First Fitnah had transformed the Muslim political world. And now, as the fourth Caliph entered the final stage of his life, another tragedy was moving quietly toward him.
The swords of Jamal had been sheathed. The battlefield of Siffin had fallen silent. Nahrawān had ended. But the hatred of a small group had not died with its fallen.
Somewhere in the shadows of Kufa... a man was preparing for an act that would bring the life of Ali ibn Abi Talib رضي الله عنه to its final earthly chapter.
The Caliph had survived battles against armies. But he would not survive the dagger of the Fitnah.
And the next dawn would change the history of the Muslim world forever.
End of Chapter 5: Part 5
Chapter 5: Part 6 - Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُمْ – After Siffin — When the Sword Fell Silent, But the Fitnah Did Not!