Chapter 8: Marwan, Abdul Malik, and the Empire Built Through Fire
After the death of Yazid ibn Muawiya, chaos spread rapidly across the Islamic lands. Rebellions rose from Arabia to Iraq. Old tribal rivalries returned. Different leaders claimed authority. Some believed the Umayyad rule had lost moral legitimacy after Karbala.
THE BRIEF HISTORY OF ISLAM!
Danish Shafiq
6/18/20269 min read
Chapter 8: Marwan, Abdul Malik, and the Empire Built Through Fire
The wounds of Karbala had not healed.
Across the Muslim world, grief still moved silently through hearts. In Madinah, old companions of Prophet Muhammad ﷺ remembered the days when revelation still descended from the heavens. In Iraq, people whispered the name of Hussain رضي الله عنه with tears. In distant lands, Muslims wondered how the Ummah that once stood united behind the Prophet ﷺ had entered an age of bloodshed.
The empire remained vast. But spiritually, the Muslim world felt fractured. After the death of Yazid ibn Muawiya, chaos spread rapidly across the Islamic lands. Rebellions rose from Arabia to Iraq. Old tribal rivalries returned. Different leaders claimed authority. Some believed the Umayyad rule had lost moral legitimacy after Karbala.
And among those who stood firmly against Umayyad control was Abdullah ibn Zubair رضي الله عنه. We will know about him later in this chapter.
For years, the Muslim world stood divided between rival powers.
Then emerged Marwan ibn al-Hakam. A controversial figure in Islamic history! A politician from the Umayyad family. Marwan was a cousin of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan رضي الله عنه and eventually became one of his closest advisers and secretaries.
The Letter That Changed Everything!
One of the most disputed events from the life of Marwan is about a letter allegedly ordering the punishment—or execution—of Egyptian rebels after they had left Medina believing they had reached a peaceful settlement with Caliph Uthman رضي الله عنه.
Marwan recommended a violent response against them. Instead, Uthman entered into a settlement with the Egyptians, the largest and most outspoken group among the mutineers. On their return to Egypt, the rebels intercepted a letter in Uthman's name to Egypt's governor instructing him to take action against the rebels. In reaction, the Egyptians marched back to Medina and besieged Uthman رضي الله عنه in his home in June 656.
Uthman رضي الله عنه claimed to have been unaware of the letter, and it may have been authored by Marwan without Uthman's رضي الله عنه knowledge. Some historians mentions that despite orders to the contrary, Marwan actively defended Uthman's house and was badly wounded in the neck when he challenged the rebels assembled at its entrance.
When Uthman رضي الله عنه was assassinated in 656 CE, the Muslim community entered its first civil war. Marwan demanded justice for Uthman's killers. in the ensuing hostilities between Caliph Ali رضي الله عنه and the largely Qurayshite partisans of Aisha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا, Marwan sided with the Aisha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا. He fought alongside Aisha's forces at the Battle of the Camel near Basra in December 656.
According to one version in the Islamic tradition, Marwan used the occasion of the battle to kill a partisan of Aisha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا, Talha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, whom he held especially responsible for instigating Uthman's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ death. Marwan had fired an arrow at Talha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, which struck the sciatic vein below his knee, as their troops fell back in a hand-to-hand fight with Ali's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ soldiers.
The historian Wilferd Madelung notes that Marwan "evidently" waited to kill Talha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ when Aisha رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهَا appeared close to defeat and thus in a weak position to call Marwan to account for his action. Another version in the tradition attributes Talha's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ death to Ali's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ supporters during Talha's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ retreat from the field.
After the battle ended in a victory for Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, Marwan pledged his allegiance to him. Ali رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ pardoned him and Marwan left for Syria, where his distant cousin Mu'awiya رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, who refused to accept the legitimacy of Ali's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ authority, was governor. Marwan was present alongside Mu'awiya رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ at the Battle of Siffin near Raqqa in 657, which ended in a stalemate with Ali's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ army and abortive arbitration talks to settle the civil war.
Under Mu'awiya Caliphate Marwan acquired a large estate in the Fadak oasis in northwestern Arabia, which he then bestowed on his sons Abd al-Malik and Abd al-Aziz. After the demise of Mu'awiya رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, Marwan reluctantly accepted Mu'awiya's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ nomination of Yazid (Al lanati - the cursed one) in 676.
Yazid dispatched an expeditionary force of Syrian tribesmen led by Muslim ibn Uqba to assert Umayyad authority over the region. The Umayyads of Medina were afterward expelled and many, including Marwan joined Yazid expedition. In the ensuing Battle of al-Harra in August 683, Marwan led his horsemen through Medina and launched a rear assault against the Medinese defenders fighting Ibn Uqba in the city's eastern outskirts. Despite its victory over the Medinese, Yazid's army retreated to Syria in the wake of the caliph's death in November.
On the Syrians' departure, Abdullah Ibn al-Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ declared himself caliph. Marwan and the Umayyads of the Hejaz were expelled for a second time by Abdullah Ibn al-Zubayr's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ partisans and their properties were confiscated.
Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr رضي الله عنه was no ordinary man. He was the son of Al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam رضي الله عنه, one of the ten companions promised Paradise. Born in Madinah shortly after the Hijrah, Abdullah became the first child born to the Muhajirun in Madinah—a birth that brought immense joy to the early Muslim community after rumors had spread that the Jews had bewitched the Muslims so that no children would be born.
His mother was Asma bint Abu Bakr رضي الله عنها, the courageous daughter of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq رضي الله عنه, remembered as Dhat an-Nitaqayn ("the Woman of the Two Belts") for her service during the Hijrah. He was also the nephew of Aisha رضي الله عنها, the Mother of the Believers.
His authority was recognized across vast regions of the Islamic world including The Hejaz (Makkah and Madinah), Yemen, Egypt (for a period), Iraq, Khurasan and Parts of Persia.
Now coming back to Marwan, by early 684, Marwan was in Syria in the court of Yazid's young son and successor, Mu'awiya II, in Damascus. The latter died several weeks into his reign without designating a successor.
The governors of the Syrian districts of Palestine, Homs and Qinnasrin subsequently gave their allegiance to Abdullah Ibn al-Zubair's رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ.
Marwan was encouraged by the expelled governor of Iraq, Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad (Al lanati - the cursed one, remembered for his role in the killings of members of Ahl al-Bayt including Hussain رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ) to volunteer himself as Mu'awiya II's successor over Yazid's young son Khalid bin Yazid, supported by other chieftains including Rawh ibn Zinba of the Judham.
Marwan received ceremonial oaths of allegiance as caliph in Damascus. He wed Yazid's widow and mother of Khalid, Umm Hashim Fakhita, thereby establishing a political link with the Sufyanids. Marwan attempted to seize the inheritance of Yazid by becoming stepfather to his sons.
Despite the consolidation of Umayyad power in central Syria, Marwan's authority was not recognized in the rest of the Umayyads' former domains; with the help of Ubayd Allah Ibn Ziyad(Al lanati - the cursed one), Marwan undertook to restore Umayyad rule across the Caliphate. Through alliances and military strength, Marwan slowly restored Umayyad control over Syria and nearby regions. But his reign was short, After a reign of between six and ten months, depending on the source, Marwan died in the spring of 65 AH/685. Soon, power passed to one of his son:
Abdul Malik ibn Marwan.
Another controversial figure. Abdul Malik was intelligent, disciplined, and politically determined. Unlike earlier rulers who inherited relative unity, he inherited a fractured empire. He held administrative and military posts under Mu'awiya رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ, and his own father, Marwan ibn al-Hakam.
By the time of Abd al-Malik's accession, Umayyad authority had collapsed across the Caliphate. He wanted order. He wanted central authority. And above all… he wanted the Umayyad State to rule the entire Islamic territory.
But the road toward rebuilding the empire would leave painful marks upon Islamic history. At the time of his accession the Islamic world itself had fragmented into different regions, to the south ruled Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ from Makkah. Iraq acknowledged different leaders. The Kharijites continued their rebellions.
The Byzantine Emperor Justinian II pressed military pressure along the northern frontiers and at times extracted tribute while the Umayyads struggled with civil war. To restore control, Abdul Malik relied heavily upon one of the most feared men of the age:
Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.
Even centuries later, the name of Hajjaj would continue to divide opinions among Muslims. Some remembered him as an administrator who restored discipline to a collapsing empire. Others remembered him as a symbol of fear and brutality.
And perhaps history remembers him as both.
Initially Hajjaj and his father took up military service under Caliph Yazid. Soon after Abd al-Malik acceded to the caliphate, Al-Hajjaj left his hometown and went to the Umayyad capital. Hajjaj became fiercely loyal to Abdul Malik. He ruled with iron severity. Rebellions were crushed mercilessly. Opposition was silenced harshly.
As a result of his success suppressing the Caliph's mutinous troops, Abd al-Malik entrusted al-Hajjaj with command of the army's rear-guard. He achieved further feats of valor, so that after the defeat of Mus'ab at the Battle of Maskin, Abd al-Malik entrusted him to subdue Abdullah Ibn al-Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ in Mecca.
Abd al-Malik had charged him to try to secure Ibn al-Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ capitulation by diplomatic means if possible, and to avoid the shedding of blood in Mecca. Ibn al-Zubayr رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ rejected the Umayyad offers same like Hussain رَضِيَ ٱللَّٰهُ عَنْهُ rejected the Yazid Supremecy. Hajjaj, after receiving reinforcements and the Caliph's permission, moved to attack Mecca.
Then came one of the darkest moments of the era.
The siege of Makkah. The holiest city in Islam. The city where Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was born. The city toward which millions turned in prayer every day. Inside Makkah stood Abdullah ibn Zubair رضي الله عنه , refusing to surrender against the tyrant. Outside stood the forces of Hajjaj. The unthinkable soon happened. Catapults were raised against the sacred city. Stones and fire rained toward Makkah itself. The Kaaba — the House built for the worship of One God — was damaged during the conflict. For many Muslims, the shock was unbearable.
The sanctuary that even pre-Islamic Arabs had once respected during war now stood beneath siege by Muslims themselves. Inside the city, Abdullah ibn Zubair رضي الله عنه prepared for his final stand. Before the battle, he went to his elderly mother, Asma bint Abu Bakr رضي الله عنها . She was now blind with age. Yet her courage remained stronger than armies. Abdullah رضي الله عنه asked her: “Mother, what if they kill me?”
Asma رضي الله عنها replied with words history would never forget: “If you are upon the truth, then remain firm.”
Strengthened by her words, Abdullah ibn Zubair رضي الله عنه entered the battlefield knowing death awaited him. Finally, after seven months of siege and the defection of several thousand of his supporters, including two of his sons, Ibn al-Zubayr رضي الله عنه was martyred alongside his last remaining loyal followers, fighting around the Ka'aba.
He fought until he was martyred. The son of a great companion. The grandson of Abu Bakr Siddiq رضي الله عنه . A man born in the earliest generation of Islam. His death marked the final collapse of resistance against Abdul Malik’s rule.
History often remembers the victors. Yet Abdullah ibn al-Zubair رضي الله عنه deserves remembrance for something greater than victory. He stood by his convictions, ruled from the Sacred Mosque, and refused to compromise what he believed was the proper principle of leadership.
Whether one agrees with every political decision he made or not, he remains one of the defining figures of the Islamic History and an essential part of understanding how the early caliphate evolved after the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
Perhaps his greatest lesson is this: Power may build kingdoms. But steadfastness builds legacies.
The Umayyad Empire was united once again. As a reward, Abd al-Malik gave Hajjaj the governorship of the Hejaz (Mecca & Madina), Yemen, and al-Yamama (central Arabia). As governor, Hajjaj led the Hajj in person in the years 73 and 74 AH (693 and 694 CE), and restored the Ka'aba to the shape and dimensions it had originally,
Yet being a tyrant and uncompromising commander, history also records another side of Al-Hajjaj.
He strengthened tax administration, improved roads and communication, reorganized the Iraqi garrison cities, and helped stabilize a region that had experienced years of unrest.
He also supported campaigns that greatly expanded the Umayyad frontier.
During his governorship:
Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh (present-day southern Pakistan), establishing the first lasting Muslim foothold in the Indian subcontinent.
Qutayba ibn Muslim expanded Muslim rule deep into Central Asia, reaching Bukhara and Samarkand.
These conquests would profoundly influence the spread of Islam over the following centuries.
Some historical traditions also credit Al-Hajjaj with encouraging clearer written copies of the Qur'an by promoting improved Arabic diacritical marks and orthographic standardization, although the broader process involved several scholars and developed over time.
Now coming back to Abdul Malik bin Marwan, even amid fear and violence, he transformed the empire in lasting ways.
Among his most enduring achievements were:
Arabic became the principal language of government, replacing Greek and Persian in many administrative offices.
He introduced a distinctive Islamic gold dinar and silver dirham, reducing dependence on Byzantine and Sasanian coinage and expressing the political independence of the caliphate.
He expanded administrative reforms, improved taxation and record-keeping, and strengthened communication across the empire.
During his reign, the magnificent Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem was completed, one of the earliest surviving masterpieces of Islamic architecture.
The Muslim world was becoming more organized, more connected, and more politically powerful. And while Hajjaj ruled Iraq with severity, new frontiers opened far beyond Arabia.
To the east, a young commander named Muhammad bin Qasim marched toward Sindh. The lands near the Indian subcontinent had long been connected to Arab traders through the seas, but now Muslim armies entered the region militarily for the first time.
Cities in Sindh fell under Umayyad authority, and with them began one of the earliest political connections between Islam and India. For centuries to come, Islam in the Indian subcontinent would continue growing through traders, scholars, Sufis, rulers, and ordinary people.
Meanwhile, in the far west, another young commander prepared for a different journey. Beyond North Africa lay a vast land the Arabs called Al-Andalus. A land of mountains, rivers, churches, castles, and ancient kingdoms. And soon, under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad, Muslim armies would cross the sea itself.
The story of Islam was no longer confined to Arabia. It was becoming the story of civilizations. Yet beneath every victory, the memories of Karbala… Makkah… and the blood of Muslims spilled by Muslims still haunted the conscience of the Ummah.
The empire had survived.
But the soul of the Muslim world was still searching for peace.
End of Chapter 8
